Fairy Octaves

I’m still working to complete this entry… but figured I should post it before I forget, as she’s already moved on to more development related to this topic.
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Lils sat down to the keys today with her baby doll, Vidia, and started to play.  She focused on two octaves, c3 – c5, and had Vidia playing thirds and octaves.  At first, not having heard her do this before except accidentally, I just continued my work.  But then, she continued.  She shifted her hands and continued to play the combinations (mostly octaves, but some thirds) up and down the scales.  That got my attention.
I waited.. Russ watched from around the corner.  I listened.
She played, sang a bit with her notes, and then as she was consistently playing the octaves, along with other note combinations, she would correct herself.  In other words, if she played a 7th instead of an octave, she modified to the octave.  Over and over, she corrected her choices in order to produce the tone she intended.  And it wasn’t just the octaves, she modified the thirds in the same way.
She played for almost 4 minutes; singing and deciding, purposefully, what was to be played by her little baby Vidia.
From a developmental point of view, this demonstration indicates a few definite milestones and progressions: Tonal recognition (pitch), mathematics of intervals (tones, and in this case visual – key spacing and patterns), confidence, coordination (motor skills and conceptual) of mind/eye/ear/fingers/baby doll, and self directed activity for personal enjoyment enhanced to support individual imagination (playing with the doll’s fingers).  In her performance, she demonstrated physical development in the ear and brain, as well as cognitive development in her use and execution.
Years ago she demonstrated her awareness of timbre and could (and would) accurately distinguish and name the various instruments she heard and picked out of a group.  Now, not only does she continue to possess this distinguishing ability, but she will sing the various parts within a given piece of music, mimicking the instrument’s unique qualities, pitch, and melody. She will identify songs (title them, as it were) by whatever instrument or section stands out to her the most.  The most obvious of these are songs from Afrocelts, where the titles are meaningless to her, but even at 2, she gave each song on the albums we listened to (usually while falling asleep for naps) a different name, based on either the leading rhythm sequence, the phonetic sounds the lead instrument (or repeated phrase, melody) portrayed to her, or some other aspect of the piece that happen to seem poignant to her.
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For each pitch there is a corresponding part of the tonotopically organized basilar membrane in the inner ear which responds to the sound and sends a signal to the auditory cortex. Sections of cells in the cortex are responsive to certain frequencies, which range from very low to very high in pitches.^[1] This organization may not be stable and the specific cells that are responsive to different pitches may change over days or months.

In simple terms, timbre is what makes a particular musical sound different from another, even when they have the same pitch and loudness. For instance, it is the difference between a guitar and a piano playing the same note at the same loudness. Learned musicians are able to distinguish between different instruments based on their varied timbres, even if those instruments are playing notes at the same pitch and loudness.

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Melody processing in the secondary auditory cortex

Studies suggest that individuals are capable of automatically detecting a difference or anomaly in a melody such as an out of tune pitch which does not fit with their previous music experience. This automatic processing occurs in the secondary auditory cortex. Brattico, Tervaniemi, Naatanen, and Peretz (2006) performed one such study to determine if the detection of tones that do not fit an individual’s expectations can occur automatically.^[3] They recorded event-related potentials (ERPs) in nonmusicians as they were presented unfamiliar melodies with either an out of tune pitch or an out of key pitch while participants were either distracted from the sounds or attending to the melody. Both conditions revealed an early frontal negativity independent of where attention was directed. This negativity originated in the auditory cortex, more precisely in the supratemporal lobe (which corresponds with the secondary auditory cortex) with greater activity from the right hemisphere. The negativity response was larger for pitch that was out of tune than that which was out of key. Ratings of musical incongruity were higher for out of tune pitch melodies than for out of key pitch. In the focused attention condition, out of key and out of tune pitches produced late parietal positivity. The findings of Brattico et al. (2006) suggest that there is automatic and rapid processing of melodic properties in the secondary auditory cortex.^[3] The findings that pitch incongruities were detected automatically, even in processing unfamiliar melodies, suggests that there is an automatic comparison of incoming information with long term knowledge of musical scale properties, such as culturally influenced rules of musical properties (common chord progressions, scale patterms, etc.) and individual expectations of how the melody should proceed.

Role of right auditory cortex in fine pitch resolution

The primary auditory cortex is one of the main areas associated with superior pitch resolution.

The right secondary auditory cortex has finer pitch resolution than the left.
As well as finding superior pitch resolution in the right secondary auditory cortex, specific areas found to be involved were the planum temporale (PT) in the secondary auditory cortex, and the primary auditory cortex in the medial section of Heschl’s gyrus (HG).
Many neuroimaging studies have found evidence of the importance of right secondary auditory regions in aspects of musical pitch processing, such as melody. Sounds with pitch activated more of these regions than sounds without. When a melody was produced activation spread to the superior temporal gyrus (STG) and planum polare (PP). These results support the existence of a pitch processing hierarchy.
 

Music and language

Certain aspects of language and melody have been shown to be processed in near identical functional brain areas. These areas included the primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, Broca’s area, anterior insula, primary and secondary auditory cortices, temporal pole, basal ganglia, ventral thalamus and posterior cerebellum. Differences were found in lateralization tendencies as language tasks favoured the left hemisphere, but the majority of activations were bilateral which produced significant overlap across modalities.
Syntactical information mechanisms in both music and language have been shown to be processed similarly in the brain. Jentschke, Koelsch, Sallat and Friederici (2008) conducted a study investigating the processing of music in children with specific language impairments (SLI).^[8] Children with typical language development (TLD) showed ERP patterns different than that of children with SLI which reflected their challenges to process music-syntactic regularities. Strong correlations between the ERAN amplitude and linguistic and musical abilities provide additional evidence for the relationship of syntactical processing in music and language.^[8]
However, production of melody and production of speech may be subserved by different neural networks. Stewart, Walsh, Frith and Rothwell (2001) studied the differences between speech production and song production using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS).^[9] Stewart et al. found that TMS applied to the left frontal lobe disturbs speech but not melody supporting the idea that they are subserved by different areas of the brain. The authors suggest that a reason for the difference is that speech generation can be localized well but the underlying mechanisms of melodic production cannot. Alternatively, it was also suggested that speech production may be less robust than melodic production and thus more susceptible to interference.^[9]
Language processing is a function more of the left side of the brain than the right side, particularly Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s area, though the roles played by the two sides of the brain in processing different aspects of language are still unclear. Music is also processed by both the left and the right sides of the brain. Recent evidence further suggest shared processing between language and music at the conceptual level.^[12] It has also been found that, among music conservatory students, the prevalence of absolute pitch is much higher for speakers of tone language, even controlling for ethnic background, showing that language influences how musical tones are perceived

Musician vs. non-musician processing

Professional piano players show less cortical activation for complex finger movement tasks due to structural differences in the brain.

Differences

Brain structure within musicians and non-musicians is distinctly different. Gaser and Schlaug (2003) compared brain structures of professional musicians with non-musicians and discovered gray matter volume differences in motor, auditory and visual-spatial brain regions.^[15] Specifically, positive correlations were discovered between musician status (professional, amateur and non-musician) and gray matter volume in the primary motor and somatosensory areas, premotor areas, anterior superior parietal areas and in the inferior temporal gyrus bilaterally. This strong association between musician status and gray matter differences supports the notion that musicians’ brains show use-dependent structural changes.^[16] Due to the distinct differences in several brain regions, it is unlikely that these differences are innate but rather due to the long-term acquisition and repetitive rehearsal of musical skills.
Brains of musicians also show functional differences from those of non-musicians. Krings, Topper, Foltys, Erberich, Sparing, Willmes and Thron (2000) utilized fMRI to study brain area involvement of professional piano players and a control group while performing complex finger movements.^[17]Krings et al. found that the professional piano players showed lower levels of cortical activation in motor areas of the brain. It was concluded that a lesser amount of neurons needed to be activated for the piano players due to long-term motor practice which results in the different cortical activation patterns. Koeneke, Lutz, Wustenberg and Jancke (2004) reported similar findings in keyboard players.^[18] Skilled keyboard players and a control group performed complex tasks involving unimanual and bimanual finger movements. During task conditions, strong hemodynamic responses in the cerebellum were shown by both non-musicians and keyboard players, but non-musicians showed the stronger response. This finding indicates that different cortical activation patterns emerge from long-term motor practice. This evidence supports previous data showing that musicians require fewer neurons to perform the same movements.
Musicians have been shown to have significantly more developed left planum temporales, and have also shown to have a greater word memory (Chan et al.). Chan’s study controlled for age, grade point average and years of education and found that when given a 16 word memory test, the musicians averaged one to two more words above their non musical counterparts.

Similarities

Studies have shown that the human brain has an implicit musical ability.^[19][20] Koelsch, Gunter, Friederici and Schoger (2000) investigated the influence of preceding musical context, task relevance of unexpected chords and the degree of probability of violation on music processing in both musicians and non-musicians.^[19] Findings showed that the human brain unintentionally extrapolates expectations about impending auditory input. Even in non-musicians, the extrapolated expectations are consistent with music theory. The ability to process information musically supports the idea of an implicit musical ability in the human brain. In a follow-up study, Koelsch, Schroger, and Gunter (2002) investigated whether ERAN and N5 could be evoked preattentively in non-musicians.^[20] Findings showed that both ERAN and N5 can be elicited even in a situation where the musical stimulus is ignored by the listener indicating that there is a highly differentiated preattentive musicality in the human brain.

Musical imagery

Musical imagery refers to the experience of replaying music by imagining it inside the head.^[29] Musicians show a superior ability for musical imagery due to intense musical training.^[30]Herholz, Lappe, Knief and Pantev (2008) investigated the differences in neural processing of a musical imagery task in musicians and non-musicians. Utilizing magnetoencephalography (MEG), Herholz et al. examined differences in the processing of a musical imagery task with familiar melodies in musicians and non-musicians. Specifically, the study examined whether the mismatch negativity (MMN) can be based solely on imagery of sounds. The task involved participants listening to the beginning of a melody, continuation of the melody in his/her head and finally hearing a correct/incorrect tone as further continuation of the melody. The imagery of these melodies was strong enough to obtain an early preattentive brain response to unanticipated violations of the imagined melodies in the musicians. These results indicate similar neural correlates are relied upon for trained musicians imagery and perception. Additionally, the findings suggest that modification of the imagery mismatch negativity (iMMN) through intense musical training results in achievement of a superior ability for imagery and preattentive processing of music.
Perceptual musical processes and musical imagery may share a neural substrate in the brain. A PET study conducted by Zatorre, Halpern, Perry, Meyer and Evans (1996) investigatedcerebral blood flow (CBF) changes related to auditory imagery and perceptual tasks.^[31] These tasks examined the involvement of particular anatomical regions as well as functional commonalities between perceptual processes and imagery. Similar patterns of CBF changes provided evidence supporting the notion that imagery processes share a substantial neural substrate with related perceptual processes. Bilateral neural activity in the secondary auditory cortex was associated with both perceiving and imagining songs. This implies that within the secondary auditory cortex, processes underlie the phenomenological impression of imagined sounds. The supplementary motor area (SMA) was active in both imagery and perceptual tasks suggesting covert vocalization as an element of musical imagery. CBF increases in the inferior frontal polar cortex and right thalamus suggest that these regions may be related to retrieval and/or generation of auditory information from memory.

Absolute pitch

Russ has absolute pitch, Angie does not.
While Angie has the capacity to differentiate pitch properly, including tuning to absolute pitch, Russ has the ability to generate it from nothing except what he hears in his head, thereby becoming the tuning fork that all others will tune to. He is usually accurate to within a few cents. 

Musicians possessing absolute pitch can identify the pitch of musical tones without external reference.

Absolute pitch (AP) is defined as the ability to identify the pitch of a musical tone or to produce a musical tone at a given pitch without the use of an external reference pitch.^[32] Neuroscientific research has not discovered a distinct activation pattern common for possessors of AP. Zatorre, Perry, Beckett, Westbury and Evans (1998) examined the neural foundations of AP using functional and structural brain imaging techniques.^[33] Positron emission tomography (PET) was utilized to measure cerebral blood flow (CBF) in musicians possessing AP and musicians lacking AP. When presented with musical tones, similar patterns of increased CBF in auditory cortical areas emerged in both groups. AP possessors and non-AP subjects demonstrated similar patterns of left dorsolateral frontal activity when they performed relative pitch judgments. However, in non-AP subjects activation in the right inferior frontal cortex was present whereas AP possessors showed no such activity. This finding suggests that musicians with AP do not need access to working memory devices for such tasks. These findings imply that there is no specific regional activation pattern unique to AP. Rather, the availability of specific processing mechanisms and task demands determine the recruited neural areas.
 

Neuropsychology of musical memory

Musical memory involves both explicit and implicit memory systems.^[37] Explicit musical memory is further differentiated between episodic (where, when and what of the musical experience) and semantic (memory for music knowledge including facts and emotional concepts). Implicit memory centers on the ‘how’ of music and involves automatic processes such as procedural memory and motor skill learning – in other words skills critical for playing an instrument. Samson and Baird (2009) found that the ability of musicians with Alzheimer’s Disease to play an instrument (implicit procedural memory) may be preserved.

Neural correlates of musical memory

A PET study looking into the neural correlates of musical semantic and episodic memory found distinct activation patterns.^[38] Semantic musical memory involves the sense of familiarity of songs. The semantic memory for music condition resulted in bilateral activation in the medial and orbital frontal cortex, as well as activation in the left angular gyrus and the left anterior region of the middle temporal gyri. These patterns support the functional asymmetry favouring the left hemisphere for semantic memory. Left anterior temporal and inferior frontal regions that were activated in the musical semantic memory task produced activation peaks specifically during the presentation of musical material, suggestion that these regions are somewhat functionally specialized for musical semantic representations.
Episodic memory of musical information involves the ability to recall the former context associated with a musical excerpt.^[38] In the condition invoking episodic memory for music, activations were found bilaterally in the middle and superior frontal gyri and precuneus, with activation predominant in the right hemisphere. Other studies have found the precuneus to become activated in successful episodic recall.^[39] As it was activated in the familiar memory condition of episodic memory, this activation may be explained by the successful recall of the melody.
When it comes to memory for pitch, there appears to be a dynamic and distributed brain network subserves pitch memory processes. Gaab, Gaser, Zaehle, Jancke and Schlaug (2003) examined the functional anatomy of pitch memory using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).^[40] An analysis of performance scores in a pitch memory task resulted in a significant correlation between good task performance and the supramarginal gyrus (SMG) as well as the dorsolateral cerebellum. Findings indicate that the dorsolateral cerebellum may act as a pitch discrimination processor and the SMG may act as a short-term pitch information storage site. The left hemisphere was found to be more prominent in the pitch memory task than the right hemispheric regions.

Development

The musical four year olds have been found to have compared to one greater left hemisphere intrahemispheric coherence.^[41] Musicians have been found to have more developed anterior portions of the corpus callosum in a study by Cowell et al. in 1992 . This was confirmed by a study by Schlaug et al. in 1995 who found that classical musicians between the ages of 21 and 36 have significantly greater anterior corpora callosa than the non-musical control. Schlaug also found that there was a strong correlation of musical exposure before the age of seven, and a great increase in the size of the corpus callosum.^[41] These fibers join together the left and right hemispheres and indicate an increased relaying between both sides of the brain. This suggests the merging between the spatial- emotiono-tonal processing of the right brains and the linguistical processing of the left brain. This large relaying across many different areas of the brain might contribute to music’s ability to aid in memory function.
 

Corpus Callosum:

Function
The corpus callosum is involved in several functions of the body including:

 
 
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Discuss the concept of music training vs natural inclination and development (in another post)
TRAINING: http://www.paulborgese.com/report_benefitofmusic.html
Use for higher learning; magic ticket for schools: http://www.eduguide.org/library/viewarticle/1492
 
According to Welch, there are seven phases of vocal development: Early childhood from1 to 3 years of age, later childhood from 3 to 10 years of age, Puberty from 8 to 14 years of age, Adolescence from 12 to 16 years of age, Early adulthood from 15 to 30/40 years of age, Adulthood from 40 to 60 years of age and Senescence from 60 years of age onwards (Welch, 2006). Some important points about the physiology of vocal development are the individual differences that exist among human beings, the sex differences, the difference between biological age and chronological age and the fact that some phases overlap. Dr. Welch also described a continuum of vocal ability which can be segmented into 3 categories. From left to right of the scale, the first category is abnormal, the second is normal and the third is supranormal.
He continued his talk by emphasizing that music is an emotional experience which involves the activation of 3 biological systems: The endocrine system, the immune system and the nervous system. Moreover, brain architecture was discussed in order to point out its integrated neurological modularity. Music is an experience which is multi-sited. In a research by Belin and Zatorre (2000) it was found that voice selective regions can be found in both hemispheres of the brain. Peretz and Coltheart (2003) proposed a model of music processing which was then adapted by Welch (2005) in order to be specifically about singing processing. This model involves all the steps from the acoustic input, the acoustic analysis, the emotional analysis, the musical lexicon, the phonological lexicon to the song lyrics and melody.
Further, as far as singing and speaking is concerned, it was found that there exists a bi-hemispheric network for vocal production. The above finding was revealed through a research by Ozdemir, Norton and Schlaug (2006) who gave participants a task, to repeat a sequence of 20 bi-syllabic phrases based on a recording by a native English speaker. An fMRI study showed that in all 4 conditions – speaking, singing, humming and vowel production – both sides of the brain were activated.
 
Comparing the differences between actual singing and imagined singing, there is actual evidence from an fMRI study that largely the same areas are activated in the brain in both cases (Kieber, Veit, Birbaumer & Lotze, 2007). Dr. Welch also added that mental rehearsals are not at all a waste of time and that they should be used by undergraduate music students in order to rehearse quietly. Further, there are studies that examine the difference between singing alone or with others. Larry Parsons conducted an fMRI study which showed that the social part of the brain is activated when singing with others (Kieber, Veit, Birbaumer & Lotze, 2007).
Going back to the musical development, Dr. Welch emphasised that musical development begins pre-birth in utero. The voice and the emotional state of the mother while singing or speaking are encoded and perceived by the foetus. In early childhood the identification of rhythmic and melodic contour patterns begins (Welch, 2006). Children at the age of 3 are able to sing by combining familiar tunes from their culture with improvised melodies. The environment plays an important role in how every child will develop musically. Research has shown that children with a richer music environment develop faster as far as singing is concerned (Welch, 2006). Based on this evidence, the UK government created the Sing-up Program for children.
 
To be more specific, singing activity affects on physical benefits such as respiratory, cardiac, and neurological development. It helps children form better understanding and skills of what they learn in educational perspective. Most importantly, it benefits in social perspectives such as group works, communication, or community setting understanding. Children with higher singing ability had a more positive self concept.
A voice is one of the tools to describe who the person is. Therefore, giving children and adolescents more access to singing education will help not only to have higher singing ability, but also to have a more positive self-identity and social inclusion, eventually being beneficial to society on the whole. If we follow Dr. Welch’s argument, overall singing and engaging in musical activities will help socialization and the development of a healthy self-identity in children.
 
http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/yf/famsci/fs611w.htm